General Hospital Psychiatry
Volume 30, Issue 5 , Pages 446-452 , September 2008

The 1995 Kikwit Ebola outbreak: lessons hospitals and physicians can apply to future viral epidemics

  • Ryan C.W. Hall, M.D.

      Affiliations

    • Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Tel.: +1 407 322 8199; fax: +1 407 322 8169.
  • ,
  • Richard C.W. Hall, M.D.

      Affiliations

    • Department of Psychiatry, University of South Florida, Lake Mary, FL 32746, USA
  • ,
  • Marcia J. Chapman

      Affiliations

    • Research Assistant, Richard C.W. Hall, M.D., P.A., Lake Mary, FL, USA

Received 28 February 2008 ,Accepted 14 May 2008.

References 

  1. Olukya G. Ebola outbreak in Uganda kills 16. http://www.newsvine.com/_news/2007/11/29/1130193-new-subtype-of-ebola-suspected-in-uganda[Accessed November 29, 2007]
  2. De Roo A, Ado B, Rose B, et al. Survey among survivors of the 1995 Ebola epidemic in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of Congo: their feelings and experiences. Trop Med Int Health. 1998;3:883–885
  3. Leirs H, Mills JN, Krebs JW, et al. Search for the Ebola virus reservoir in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo: reflections on a vertebrate collection. J Infect Dis. 1999;179(Suppl 1):S155–S163
  4. Roels TH, Bloom AS, Buffington J, et al. Ebola hemorrhagic fever, Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995: risk factors for patients without a reported exposure. J Infect Dis. 1999;179(Suppl 1):S92–S97
  5. Heymann DL, Barakamfitiye D, Szczeniowski M, et al. Ebola hemorrhagic fever: lessons from Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo. J Infect Dis. 1999;179(Suppl 1):S283–S286
  6. Guimard Y, Bwaka MA, Colebunders R, et al. Organization of patient care during the Ebola hemorrhagic fever epidemic in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. J Infect Dis. 1999;179(Suppl 1):S268–S273
  7. Muyembe-Tamfum JJ, Kipasa M, Kiyungu C, Colebunders R. Ebola outbreak in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo: discovery and control measures. J Infect Dis. 1999;179(Suppl 1):S259–S262
  8. Kerstiens B, Matthys F. Interventions to control virus transmission during an outbreak of Ebola hemorrhagic fever: experience from Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. J Infect Dis. 1999;179(Suppl 1):S263–S267
  9. Tomori O, Bertolli J, Rollin PE, et al. Serologic survey among hospital and health center workers during the Ebola hemorrhagic fever outbreak in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. J Infect Dis. 1999;179(Suppl 1):S98–S101
  10. Hewlett BL, Hewlett BS. Providing care and facing death: nursing during Ebola outbreaks in central Africa. J Transcult Nurs. 2005;16:289–297
  11. Reed DS, Mohamadzadeh M. Status and challenges of filovirus vaccines. Vaccine. 2007;25:1923–1934
  12. Ebola haemorrhagic fever—fact sheet revised in May 2004. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2004;79:435–439
  13. Locsin RC, Matua AG. The lived experience of waiting-to-know: Ebola at Mbarara, Uganda—hoping for life, anticipating death. J Adv Nurs. 2002;37:173–181
  14. Bossi P, Tegnell A, Baka A, et al. Task Force on Biological and Chemical Agent Threats, Public Health Directorate, European Commission, Luxembourg. Bichat guidelines for the clinical management of haemorrhagic fever viruses and bioterrorism-related haemorrhagic fever viruses. Euro Surveill. 2004;9:E11–E12
  15. Formenty P, Leroy EM, Epelboin A, et al. Detection of Ebola virus in oral fluid specimens during outbreaks of Ebola virus hemorrhagic fever in the Republic of Congo. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42:1521–1526[Electronic publication 2006 Apr 26]
  16. Dowell SF, Mukunu R, Ksiazek TG, et al. Transmission of Ebola hemorrhagic fever: a study of risk factors in family members, Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. Commission de Lutte contre les Epidemies a Kikwit. J Infect Dis. 1999;179(Suppl 1):S87–S91
  17. Geisbert TW, Jahrling PB. Exotic emerging viral diseases: progress and challenges. Nat Med. 2004;10(12 Suppl):S110–S121
  18. Crowcroft NS, Morgan D, Brown D. Viral haemorrhagic fevers in Europe—effective control requires a coordinated response. Euro Surveill. 2002;7:31–32
  19. Bray M. Defense against filoviruses used as biological weapons. Antiviral Res. 2003;57:53–60
  20. Hall RCW, Hall RCW, Chapman MJ. Effects of terrorist attacks on the elderly, part 1: medical complications of biological, chemical, nuclear and bombing attacks. Clin Geriatr. 2006;14:26–35
  21. Hall RCW, Hall RCW. The 1995 Kikwit Ebola outbreak—model of virus properties on system capacity and function: a lesson for future viral epidemics. Am J Disaster Med. 2007;2(4):270–276
  22. Campbell A. The honourable. Spring of fear. Volume 1. The SARS Commission Executive Summary. Available at: www.sarscommission.ca/report/v1/html2006;[Accessed March 25, 2007]
  23. Hall RCW, Hall RCW. When the system is overwhelmed: protecting the provider during biodisaster. In: Satellite Conference, University of Alabama Birmingham South Central Center for Public Health Preparedness/Alabama Department of Public Health/Tulane University School of Public Health, Montgomery, AL, February 27. 2007;Available at: www.adph.org/alphtn[Accessed March 25, 2007]
  24. Bwaka MA, Bonnet MJ, Calain P, et al. Ebola hemorrhagic fever in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo: clinical observations in 103 patients. J Infect Dis. 1999;179(Suppl 1):S1–S7
  25. Mupapa K, Massamba M, Kibadi K, et al. Treatment of Ebola hemorrhagic fever with blood transfusions from convalescent patients. International Scientific and Technical Committee. J Infect Dis. 1999;179(Suppl 1):S18–S23
  26. Thacker PD. An Ebola epidemic simmers in Africa: in remote region, outbreak shows staying power. JAMA. 2003;290:317–319
  27. Bergeron S, Cameron S, Armstrong-Stassen M, Pare K. Diverse implications of a national health crisis: a qualitative exploration of community nurses' SARS experiences. Can J Nurs Res. 2006;38:42–54
  28. Koh D, Lim MK, Chia SE, et al. Risk perception and impact of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) on work and personal lives of healthcare workers in Singapore: what can we learn?. Med Care. 2005;43:676–682
  29. Lee S, Juang Y, Su Y, et al. Facing SARS: psychological impacts on SARS team nurses and psychiatric services in a Taiwan general hospital. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2005;27:352–358
  30. Maunder R. The experience of the 2003 SARS outbreak as a traumatic stress among frontline healthcare workers in Toronto: lessons learned. Phil Trans R Soc Lond. 2004;359:1117–1125
  31. Maunder R, Hunter J, Vincent L, et al. The immediate psychological and occupational impact of the 2003 SARS outbreak in a teaching hospital. Can Med Assoc J. 2003;168:1245–1251
  32. Maunder R, Lancee W, Rourke S, et al. Factors associated with the psychological impact of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome on nurses and other hospital workers in Toronto. Psychosom Med. 2004;66:938–942
  33. Nickell L, Crighton E, Tracy C, et al. Psychosocial effects of SARS on hospital staff: survey of a large tertiary care institution. Can Med Assoc J. 2004;170:793–798
  34. Phua D, Tang J, Tham K. Coping responses of emergency physicians and nurses to the 2003 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome outbreak. Acad Emerg Med. 2005;12:322–328
  35. Poon E, Liu K, Cheong D, et al. Impact of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome on anxiety levels of front-line health care workers. Hong Kong Med J. 2004;10:325–330
  36. Sim K, Chong P, Chan Y, Soon WS. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome—related psychiatric and posttraumatic morbidities and coping responses in medical staff within a primary health care setting in Singapore. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65:1120–1127
  37. Sim K, Chua HC. The psychological impact of SARS: a matter of heart and mind. Can Med Assoc J. 2004;170:811–812
  38. Tam C, Pang E, Lam L, Chiu HF. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in Hong Kong in 2003: stress and psychological impact among frontline healthcare workers. Psychol Med. 2004;34:1197–1204
  39. Wong TW, Yau J, Chan C, et al. The psychological impact of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome outbreak on healthcare workers in emergency departments and how they cope. Eur J Emerg Med. 2005;12:13–18
  40. Alibek K. Biohazard. New York: Random House; 1999;
  41. Chia S, Koh D, Fones C, et al. Appropriate use of personal protective equipment among healthcare workers in public sector hospitals and primary healthcare polyclinics during the SARS outbreak in Singapore. Occup Environ Med. 2005;62:473–477
  42. Rice K, Colletti L, Hartmann S, et al. Learning from Katrina. Nursing. 2006;36:44–47
  43. No authors listed . Outbreak(s) of Ebola haemorrhagic fever, Congo and Gabon, October 2001-July 2002. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2003;78:223–228
  44. Peters CJ, LeDuc JW. An introduction to Ebola: the virus and the disease. J Infect Dis. 1999;179(Suppl 1):ix–xvi

PII: S0163-8343(08)00077-7

doi: 10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2008.05.003

General Hospital Psychiatry
Volume 30, Issue 5 , Pages 446-452 , September 2008